NEUROLOGY :

Key Symptoms (Think F.A.S.T.):

• Face: Drooping or numbness on one side, difficulty smiling.
• Arm: Weakness or inability to lift both arms.
• Speech: Slurred words or difficulty speaking.
• Time: Time to call emergency services immediately.

• Ischemic Stroke: The most common type, caused by a blockage (clot) in an artery leading to the brain.
• Haemorrhagic Stroke: Caused by a ruptured blood vessel that leaks blood into the brain.
• Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA): A “mini-stroke” where symptoms last less than 24 hours, but still require urgent care

• Ischemic stroke: Often presents with focal deficits without severe headache or vomiting
• Haemorrhagic stroke: More likely to present with: Sudden severe headache, Vomiting, Reduced consciousness, Rapid neurological deterioration

Definitive differentiation requires non-contrast CT.

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive, irreversible neurological disorder that destroys brain cells, causing cognitive decline, memory loss, and dementia. It is the most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of cases. Symptoms typically begin with mild memory loss and advance to confusion, behavioural changes, and impaired daily functioning.

• Forgetting recent events
• Repeating questions
• Difficulty finding words
• Getting lost in familiar places

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological condition caused by the brain’s inability to produce enough dopamine, resulting in worsening, long-term movement issues. Common, treatable symptoms include tremors, muscle stiffness (rigidity), and slowed movement (bradykinesia), with no current cure.

• Tremor (shaking)
• Slowness of movement
• Stiff muscles
• Balance problems

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by a tendency to have recurrent, unprovoked seizures caused by sudden, abnormal bursts of electrical activity in the brain. While one-off seizures can occur, a diagnosis of epilepsy usually requires two or more unprovoked seizures. It is not a single disease but rather a spectrum of “the epilepsies” with varied causes, including genetics, brain injury, or structural changes.

Common triggers include:

• Lack of sleep
• Stress
• Alcohol or drug use
• Flashing lights (in some people)

Many people control seizures with medication. Some may benefit from surgery or special diets.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, often disabling autoimmune disease of the central nervous system where the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath protecting nerves in the brain and spinal cord. This causes inflammation and damage (lesions/plaques), disrupting nerve signals and leading to symptoms like vision loss, pain, fatigue, and impaired coordination.

Numbness or tingling

• Vision problems
• Fatigue
• Weakness
• Difficulty walking

A Migraine is a chronic, neurological disorder characterized by recurring, moderate-to-severe throbbing or pulsing headaches, usually on one side of the head. Lasting 4 to 72 hours, it is often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and extreme sensitivity to light, sound, or smell. It is a complex brain condition that often includes pre-headache warning signs (aura) and a post-headache “hangover”.

• Stress
• Hormonal changes
• Certain foods
• Lack of sleep
• Bright lights

With pain-relief medications, preventive drugs, and lifestyle changes

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s disease, is a fatal, progressive neurodegenerative disease that destroys motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord, causing muscles to waste away (atrophy). It leads to loss of voluntary muscle control, affecting walking, speaking, swallowing, and breathing. There is currently no cure, and most people live 2-10 years after diagnosis.

• Muscle twitching
• Weakness in arms or legs
• Slurred speech

Yes. Helpful habits include:

• Regular exercise
• Healthy diet
• Good sleep
• Mental stimulation
• Stress management

The most common primary brain tumours in adults are meningiomas, which are generally slow-growing and benign, accounting for 30-37% of cases. The most common malignant (cancerous) primary brain tumour is glioblastoma (GBM), which is highly aggressive and typically occurs in older adults.

• Meningioma (approx. 30-46%): Develop in the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. They are often benign and more common in women.
• Glioblastoma (GBM) (approx. 15-16%): The most common malignant primary brain tumour. They are fast-growing, grade 4 tumours.
• Pituitary Adenoma (approx. 10-14%): Tumours that develop in the pituitary gland, usually benign.
• Astrocytoma: A type of glioma that arises from astrocytes, ranging from slow-growing too aggressive.
• Oligodendroglioma: A type of glioma, often slower-growing than astrocytoma’s.
• Acoustic Neuroma (Vestibular Schwannoma): A benign, slow-growing tumour on the nerve for balance and hearing.

• Headache (worse in morning)
• Vomiting
• Seizures
• Focal neurological deficits
• Personality or cognitive changes

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is a life-threatening, emergency condition caused by a dangerous buildup of fluid or tissue swelling inside the skull. It occurs when pressure rises above the normal range (usually 5–15 mmHg), threatening to restrict blood flow to the brain and cause permanent brain damage or death. Common causes include head injuries, tumours, haemorrhages, or infections like meningitis.

• Headache
• Vomiting (often projectile)
• Papilledema
• Decreased consciousness

A late sign of raised ICP:

• Hypertension
• Bradycardia
• Irregular respirations

Epidural hematomas (EDH) and subdural hematomas (SDH) are both traumatic brain injuries involving bleeding inside the skull, but differ significantly in location and speed. EDH occurs between the skull and dura mater (usually arterial), causing rapid, high-pressure, lens-shaped bleeding, while SDH forms between the dura and arachnoid mater (usually venous), creating crescent-shaped, often slower, bleeding.

Hydrocephalus in adults is the abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain’s ventricles, causing increased pressure and potential brain tissue damage. Often called “water on the brain,” it results from blockages or absorption issues, leading to symptoms like headaches, gait disturbances, cognitive decline, and urinary incontinence.

The most common causes of a brain abscess are bacterial infections originating from nearby structures, such as the sinuses, ears, or teeth, or via the bloodstream from a distant infection (like lung infections). Streptococcus species are the most frequently identified bacteria, often accompanied by Staphylococcus aureus or anaerobes.